Polychlorinated biphenyl hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates : a synoptic review

Abstract

Lead (Pb) and its compounds have been known to man for about 7,000 years, and Pb poisoning has been recognized for at least 2,500 years. All credible evidence indicates that Pb is neither essential nor beneficial to living organisms, and that all measured effects are adverse--including those on survival, growth, reproduction, development, behavior, learning, and metabolism. Various living resources are at increased risk from Pb: migratory waterfowl that frequent hunted areas and ingest shot; avian predators that eat game wounded by hunters; domestic livestock near smelters, refineries, and Pb battery recycling plants; captive zoo animals and domestic livestock held in enclosures coated with Pb-based paints; wildlife that forage extensively near heavily traveled roads; aquatic life in proximity to mining activities, areas where Pb arsenate pesticides are used, metal finishing industries, organolead industries, and areas of Pb aerosol fallout; and crops and invertebrates growing or living in Pb-contaminated soils. Adverse effects on aquatic biota reported at waterborne Pb concentrations of 1.0 to 5.1 ug/l included reduced survival, impaired reproduction, reduced growth, and high bioconcentration from the medium. Among sensitive species of birds, survival was reduced at doses of 50 to 75 mg Pb2+/kg body weight (BW) or 28 mg organolead/kg BW, reproduction was impaired at dietary levels of 50 mg Pb /kg, and signs of poisoning were evident at doses as low as 2.8 mg organolead/kg BW. In general, forms of Pb other than shot (or ingestible Pb objects), or routes of administration other than ingestion, are unlikely to cause clinical signs of Pb poisoning in birds. Data for toxic and sublethal effects of Pb on mammalian wildlife are missing. For sensitive species of domestic and laboratory animals, survival was reduced at acute oral Pb doses of 5 mg/kg BW (rat), at chronic oral doses of 5 mg/kg BW (dog), and at dietary levels of 1.7 mg/kg BW (horse). Sublethal effects were documented in monkeys exposed to doses as low as 0.1 mg Pb/kg BW daily (impaired learning at 2 years postadministration) or fed diets containing 0.5 mg Pb/kg (abnormal social behavior). Signs of Pb exposure were recorded in rabbits given 0.005 mg Pb/kg BW and in mice given 0.05 mg Pb/kg BW. Tissue Pb levels were elevated in mice given doses of 0.03 mg Pb/kg BW, and in sheep given 0.05 mg Pb/kg BW. In general, organolead compounds were more toxic than inorganic Pb compounds, food chain biomagnification of Pb vas negligible, and younger organisms were most susceptible. More research seems merited on organolead toxicokinetics (including effects on behavior and learning), and on mammalian wildlife sensitivity to Pb and its compounds. Recent legislation limiting the content of Pb in paints, reducing the Pb content in gasoline, and eliminating the use of Pb shot nationwide (Pb shot phaseout program/schedule starting in 1986, and fully implemented by 1991) in waterfowl hunting areas will substantially reduce environmental burdens of Pb and may directly benefit sensitive fishery and wildlife resources. Continued nationwide monitoring of Pb in living resources is necessary in order to correlate reduced emission sources with reduced tissue Pb concentrations.