Stress-sensing mechanisms and the physiological roles of the Keap1–Nrf2 system during cellular stress

Abstract

Transcription factor Nrf2 (NF-E2-related factor 2) is a master regulator of cellular responses against environmental stresses. Nrf2 induces the expression of detoxification and antioxidant enzymes and suppresses the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes. Keap1 (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1) is an adaptor subunit of Cullin 3-based E3 ubiquitin ligase. Keap1 regulates the activity of Nrf2 and acts as a sensor for oxidative and electrophilic stresses. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms by which the Keap1–Nrf2 system senses and regulates the cellular response to environmental stresses. In particular, we focus on the multiple stress-sensing mechanisms of Keap1 and novel regulatory functions of Nrf2.