Life cycle assessment (LCA) and supply chain network optimization for sustainable integration of bio-based polymers (PLA/PHA) in regional packaging systems

Abstract

The promise of bio-based polymers like polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) as sustainable packaging solutions is tempered by significant real-world challenges: persistent cost premiums, complex supply chain logistics, and geographically variable environmental footprints that diminish their theoretical benefits. This study directly addresses these complexities by combining cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040/44) with a multi-objective Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model to identify economically feasible and environmentally superior configurations for regional PLA and PHA packaging systems across Western Europe. Our innovative approach goes beyond traditional methods by optimizing facility locations, transportation networks, feedstock sourcing, and end-of-life options simultaneously while assessing trade-offs between total costs and Global Warming Potential (GWP). The analysis offers valuable insights: PHA consistently outperforms PLA in net energy demand (-6.5 to +9.6 MJ/kg) and achieves true circularity within effective composting systems, yet requires significant policy support to overcome its 20% capital cost disadvantage. While localized production significantly reduces emissions by 15–30% in regions rich in renewable energy, it also increases costs by 10–15%—a paradox that can only be managed through strategically designed policies. Targeted incentives for composting infrastructure further boost circularity metrics by 40%, turning waste streams into valuable resources. These findings provide policymakers with a rigorous, data-driven framework to guide regional bio-polymer transitions, shifting from generic mandates to precise strategies that promote sustainability. Ultimately, this research shows that the sustainable packaging revolution depends not just on materials innovation but also on strategically coordinating regional advantages and technological potential. Keywords: Life Cycle Assessment, Supply Chain Optimization, Bio-based Polymers, Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), Polylactic Acid (PLA), Circular Economy, Regional Sustainability, Territorial Symbiosis, Packaging Systems, Policy Integration.