Lead-Carbon Batteries toward Future Energy Storage: From Mechanism and Materials to Applications

Abstract

The lead acid battery has been a dominant device in large-scale energy storage systems since its invention in 1859. It has been the most successful commercialized aqueous electrochemical energy storage system ever since. In addition, this type of battery has witnessed the emergence and development of modern electricity-powered society. Nevertheless, lead acid batteries have technologically evolved since their invention. Over the past two decades, engineers and scientists have been exploring the applications of lead acid batteries in emerging devices such as hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage; these applications necessitate operation under partial state of charge. Considerable endeavors have been devoted to the development of advanced carbon-enhanced lead acid battery (i.e., lead-carbon battery) technologies. Achievements have been made in developing advanced lead-carbon negative electrodes. Additionally, there has been significant progress in developing commercially available lead-carbon battery products. Therefore, exploring a durable, long-life, corrosion-resistive lead dioxide positive electrode is of significance. In this review, the possible design strategies for advanced maintenance-free lead-carbon batteries and new rechargeable battery configurations based on lead acid battery technology are critically reviewed. Moreover, a synopsis of the lead-carbon battery is provided from the mechanism, additive manufacturing, electrode fabrication, and full cell evaluation to practical applications. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.].