Life cycle assessment guided strategies for achieving zero-waste manufacturing of hydrogen fuel cells and batteries and the advancement of circular and low-carbon technologies for electric vehicles

Abstract

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are widely recognized as promising options for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transportation sector. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a vital tool for evaluating the full environmental impact, from vehicle and fuel production to use and disposal. This review summarizes recent LCAs comparing BEVs and FCEVs across multiple impact categories, including carbon footprint, resource use, energy efficiency, and water consumption. Results indicate that BEVs generally perform better than FCEVs in terms of overall energy efficiency and GHG emissions, especially when powered by low-carbon electricity. However, FCEVs may have advantages in specific scenarios like heavy-duty or long-range applications, provided hydrogen is produced from renewable sources. LCA outcomes are highly sensitive to assumptions about energy mixes, technology development, regional conditions, and system boundaries. Importantly, while policy incentives do not change LCA methods, they influence the broader energy and technology landscape such as the speed of renewable energy deployment, hydrogen infrastructure, and battery innovation that affects how LCA results are interpreted. Overall, neither technology is superior in all respects; BEVs excel in efficiency and short-range applications, whereas FCEVs may be better suited for demanding transportation needs that require longer range and faster refueling. This complementarity suggests that both technologies can play mutually reinforcing roles in achieving sustainable transportation goals.