Seabirds

Abstract

Seabirds, including penguins, albatrosses, petrels, boobies, pelicans, gulls, and terns, spend most of their life foraging at sea and breed on coastal or oceanic islands far removed from mammalian predators. They are long-lived and have delayed breeding, low clutch sizes, long incubation periods, and extended parental care. Most nest in colonies that are either monospecific or contain many different species. Nesting in colonies allows for early warning, groups defense, predator swamping that reduces the chances of any individual being eaten, and information transfer about food sources. The threats to seabirds include habitat loss and degradation, overfishing, invasive predators, toxics, plastics, and climate change. The biggest threat to nesting seabirds is nonnative mammalian predators, while fisheries provide the biggest threat to foraging seabirds (both mortality and competition for prey). Many species of seabirds are endangered.