Acculturative stress, loneliness, smartphone addiction, L2 emotions, and creativity among international students in China: a structural equation model

Abstract

Introduction: International students in China often face psychological challenges such as acculturative stress, loneliness, and problematic smartphone use, which may affect their second language (L2) learning emotions and creativity. Although these factors have been studied individually, their interrelationships remain unclear. Methods: Data were collected from 213 international students studying in China using validated instruments: the Acculturative Stress Scale for International Students (ASSIS), UCLA Loneliness Scale, Smartphone Addiction Scale Short Version (SAS-SV), Foreign Language Enjoyment and Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLE & FLCA), and the Inventory of Creative Activities and Achievements (ICAA). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to assess the hypothesized model and test both direct and indirect relationships among the constructs. Results: Acculturative stress significantly predicted smartphone addiction directly (β = 0.372, p