Assessing ecosystem services across scales: Potential, supply and demand of provisioning and cultural services

Abstract

Ecosystems provide us with countless benefits, such as material resources, regulation of environmental processes, and opportunities for recreation. These benefits, known as ecosystem services (ES), support our daily welfare and well-being. ES arise from ecological, sociocultural, and economic interactions, and are influenced by both ecosystems’ capacity to provide services and society’s demand for them. ES are unevenly distributed across space, and their supply and demand change over time. Understanding the patterns of ES provision and consumption facilitates the evaluation of their sustainable use. Therefore, comprehensive assessments of ES production and consumption across spatial and temporal scales are essential to deepen our understanding of the ES concept and its role in natural resource management. In this thesis, I exemplify the use of the ES framework by assessing the spatial and temporal patterns of ES potential, supply, and demand. Overall, I demonstrate how to select and interpret indicators of ES potential, supply, and demand and address them using spatial and statistical methods. I study the provisioning services of forests (wood resources) and the cultural services provided by urban and peri-urban areas through three separate case studies. Each article examines ES aspects across distinct scales, ranging from continental to local. Two articles are at the European level, one of which also includes a temporal scale, and one is at the urban level. The results regarding wood ES show that the potential, supply, and demand for wood have all increased across Europe. Compared to demand, Europe has a substantial supply surplus, and the analysis of mismatches between the supply and demand indicates that, on average, Europeans have good spatial accessibility to wood resources. However, the growing trend of exploiting wood ES might affect the state of forest ecosystems and their capacity to provide high-quality ES other than wood. The findings regarding cultural ES suggest that subjective spatial characteristics of green spaces, such as perceived accessibility, play a bigger role in more frequent interactions with nature than the biophysical features of these spaces or the consumption of cultural ES itself. This indicates that urban residents demand better access to green spaces in order to fully enjoy and recognize the capacity of urban ecosystems to deliver high-quality cultural ES within close proximity to their homes. My thesis exemplifies the application of the ES framework in ES mapping, incorporates ES spatial flow into supply and demand mismatch evaluation, and highlights the importance of subjective human needs and perceptions regarding ES demand as vital parts of the ES framework. The evaluation of the distribution and trends in the potential, supply, and demand of the provisioning ES of wood, alongside the produced maps, supports resource monitoring of European forests. The same applies to the maps of wood ES supply–demand mismatches, which integrate the ES spatial flow through spatial accessibility analysis. These results can inform European forest management strategies, providing spatial insights into wood potential, supply, and demand, and their mismatches. Furthermore, the evaluation of the characteristics of green spaces’ use patterns emphasizes the importance of spatial perceptions in interactions with urban and peri-urban nature. This information can be communicated to decision-makers in the studied cities and used to enhance access to green spaces that provide vital cultural ES for urban populations.I would like to thank everyone who helped me navigate the many challenges of this PhD journey. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisors for helping me grow as a researcher and guiding towards completing this thesis. I am especially thankful to my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Aleksi Räsänen. Aleksi, without your support, feedback, and encouragement, I would not have finished this work. You extended me a helping hand, during the most difficult time of my PhD. You were not afraid to step in to the role of my principal supervisor in the moment when I wanted to quit. Your clarity, consistency, and realism rekindled my belief in research and in myself. After I struggled in unsupportive environments, you showed me that research communities can be collaborative and kind. Words cannot express my gratitude to my co-supervisor, Dr. Terhi Ala-Hulkko. Terhi, you’ve taught me everything about ecosystem services and GIS, as well as the ins and outs of academic life. You have always been a role model for me as a researcher: critical, yet supportive and encouraging. You helped me get through countless failures and stood by my side when I had to make difficult decisions throughout all stages of my PhD. These decisions ultimately led me to the finish line. It’s safe to say that since the beginning of our collaboration, you always had faith in my ability to conduct research. Even at times when I’ve completely lost this faith. Thank you, for all the long hours you’ve spent working with me, for your constant support, for responding to my pessimism with optimism and for your friendship. I also thank my other co-supervisor, Dr Katja Kangas, without whom I would not have even started working in research. Katja, your calmness has always helped quiet my internal panic. Or at least almost always. Thank you for believing in me and giving me the opportunity to work in research before I even began my PhD. Sincere thanks to my follow-up group members: Dr Hidefumi Nishiyama, Dr Juha Ridänpää, and Dr Parvez Rana. Throughout my PhD, I’ve turned to you many times for advice and perspective on various challenges. While I haven’t always followed your suggestions, I’ve valued the opportunity to discuss my concerns openly in a safe and respectful environment. I would also like to thank the Kvantum Institute and the leaders of the AccESS project, for help in determining my PhD topic. Thanks also to other funding bodies that supported me throughout the time of my PhD: the KONE Foundation and the Global Food Project, the Kvantum Institute DigiPeat project, the Geography Research Unit and the University of Oulu Scholarship Foundation. During this doctoral journey, I’ve learned that not all research environments are supportive; however, eventually I’ve been fortunate enough to be part of communities that made me feel valued. I am extremely grateful to all the current and former members of the Geoinformatics Research Group, for encouragement and trust. Thank you for letting me teach and for teaching me so much through your research experience and friendship. I’m extremely grateful to the Global Food Project team: I’m glad I had the opportunity to work with you, as it was not only stimulating and efficient, but also fun. I also thank all my co-authors and those colleagues in the Geography Research Unit who supported me along the way. I’ll always remember the laughter we shared. Special thanks to those who were kind to me also behind my back. To my friends from both in and outside of academia: thank you for standing by me, listening without judgment, and encouraging me through the hardest times. Special thanks to Marika: your support and understanding, especially during the final stages of my PhD were invaluable. Finally, I extend my gratitude to my family. To my biggest supporters, my brother Szymon and my sister-in-law Sandra: thank you for motivating me to reach the finish line of this degree. Finally, my heartfelt gratitude goes to the one person who has truly shared this PhD journey with me: my partner, Anssi. You have been my constant support, especially during the most challenging times. These past five years have brought significant changes for both of us, yet through every obstacle, we made it through together. I am deeply thankful for your unwavering love and encouragement throughout this journey.