Cellulose-enabled Hydrovoltaic Energy Generation: from Molecular and Materials Design to Device Integration

Abstract

This review systematically categorizes emerging cellulose-enabled hydrovoltaic energy generators into four types based on their working mechanisms and synthesizes their research progress. Molecular and microstructure–property–performance relationships governing hydration and ion transport are elucidated to provide engineering strategies that leverage cellulose’s intrinsic surface molecular chemistry and structural tunability. Emerging applications in user-interactive electronics based on cellulose-enabled hydrovoltaic energy are comprehensively reviewed across power sources and self-powered sensors for biological and environmental activities.