Sistem Konduksi Jantung

Abstract

noEXECUTIVE SUMMARY Rich in human and natural assets, Zambia once appeared to be a pace-setter for Africa’s economic and social development. At independence in 1964, Zambia was among the continent’s wealthiest nations. However, excessive dependence on copper together with a highly centralized one-party state left the economy vulnerable. The economy contracted beginning in the mid- 1970s, when copper prices began to fall and fuel prices rose. Zambia resorted to heavy external borrowing to finance consumption and investment in capital-intensive, import-substitution industries. These industrialization policies were not a success and there was only limited investment in alternative exports. Zambia’s transition to multi-party democracy in 1991 stoked optimism that its dormant economic potential would be wakened and revived economic growth would improve the lot of the nation’s poor. The Government introduced an array of reforms in the early-to-mid 1990s, removing exchange rate controls, liberalizing the trade regime, decontrolling food and agriculture prices, liberalizing the banking sector, and privatizing many state-owned enterprises. Although there were initial gains—including a fall in inflation, a sharp increase in non-traditional exports, and some diversification in agriculture—momentum slowed in the mid-1990s and Zambia’s hopes for a sustained economic recovery remained largely unrealized. The continued deterioration in the international price of copper, macro instability, the collapse of major manufacturing industries, the scourge of HIV/AIDS, and acute governance and policy failures have conspired to stifle the nation’s progress. At the macro level, the disappointments of the decade are reflected in the decline of GDP per capita by an average 1.5 percent per year. Other measures of welfare also deteriorated: life expectancy fell, school enrollments stagnated, child malnutrition increased sharply, and by 1998, 73 percent of the population was estimated to live in poverty. At the heart of the country’s loss of economic momentum is the loss of effectiveness of the state administration. This has led to weak policies and uneven implementation, an investment climate not supportive of private investment and growth, and poor performance in the delivery of social and infrastructure services essential for growth and poverty reduction.Reversing this loss of dynamism and the impact of that loss on the poor and vulnerable is Zambia’s most important challenge. There are early and encouraging signs of economic recovery. During the initial years of the new millennium, Zambia achieved sustained albeit modest growth in GDP per-capita for the first time in several decades, and the country is finally reaping the benefits of economic reforms. But as yet there is no evidence that these economic gains have resulted in better living conditions for the poor.1 As one hears frequently in Zambia, growth in aggregate GDP has not been accompanied by GDP-in-the-pockets of the poor.