The potential double-burden of Vitamin A malnutrition: Under-and overconsumption of fortified table sugar in the Guatemalan highlands

Abstract

Background/Objectives:In Guatemala, population-wide vitamin A fortification of table sugar has been operating for two decades. The objective of this study was to estimate the adequacy of vitamin A intakes in pregnant and lactating women from low-income, urban and rural communities.Subjects/Methods:One or two previous-day dietary recalls were collected in a convenience sample of 234 pregnant and lactating women in the Western Highlands of Guatemala. Estimated daily intakes and main sources of total vitamin A, provitamin A and preformed vitamin A were calculated. Total intakes, adjusted for day-to-day variation, were examined in relation to estimated average requirements (EAR).Results:Median estimated 1-day total vitamin A intake was 1177 μg retinol activity equivalents (RAE) (interquartile range (IQR) 832-1782) in the urban site and 567 μg RAE (IQR 441-737) in the rural site. Women not meeting their status-specific vitamin A requirement were 3.5 times more common in the rural communities (31%) than in the urban confines (9%). In the urban area, 26 women (21%) had preformed vitamin A intakes above 1500 μg on the day of data collection. Preformed vitamin A accounted for a median of 83.9% and 60.9% of the daily total vitamin A intake in the urban and rural sites, respectively. Sugar was the principal source of vitamin A, contributing 512 μg RAE (IQR 343-749) in the urban site and 256 μg RAE (IQR 189-363 μg) in the rural area.Conclusions:The vitamin A contribution from fortified sugar can be a determinant of reaching adequacy; nevertheless, a significant proportion of pregnant and lactating women do not meet the EAR, especially in the rural setting.