Beyond traditional structure-based drug design: The role of iron complexation, strain, and water in the binding of inhibitors for hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase 2

Abstract

A combination of structure-based drug design and medicinal chemistry efforts led us from benzimidazole-2-carboxamide with modestly active hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase 2 inhibition to certain benzimidazole-2-pyrazole carboxylic acids that were more potent as well as orally efficacious stimulators of erythropoietin secretion in our in vivo mouse model. To better understand the structure-activity relationship, it was necessary to account for (i) the complexation of the ligand with the active site Fe 2+ , (ii) the strain incurred by the ligand upon binding, and (iii) certain key water interactions identified by a crystal structure analysis. With this more complete computational model, we arrived at an overarching paradigm that accounted for the potency differences between benzimidazole-2-carboxamide and benzimidazole-2-pyrazole carboxylic acid enzyme inhibitors. Moreover, the computational paradigm allowed us to anticipate that the bioisostere replacement strategy (amide → pyrazole), which had shown success in the benzimidazole series, was not generally applicable to other series. This illustrates that to fully reconcile the important ligand-active site interactions for certain targets, one often needs to move beyond traditional structure-based drug design (such as crystallographic analysis, docking, etc.) and appeal to a higher level of computational theory.