Mechanisms of Action and Toxicity of the Mycotoxin Alternariol: A Review

Abstract

The mycotoxin alternariol (AOH) is produced by Alternaria fungi. It occurs naturally in foodstuffs and is frequently found as contaminant in fruit and grain products. Most information regarding AOH toxicity and the potential mechanisms involved comes from in vitro studies, as only very limited in vivo studies have been performed. AOH forms reactive oxygen species (ROS) and interacts with DNA topoisomerase, thereby generating both single (SSB)- and double-strand DNA beaks (DSB). This triggers various DNA damage response pathways. AOH causes a marked reduction in proliferation in mammalian cells due to cell cycle arrest often in the G2/M-phase. After an additional inhibition of cytokinesis, cells with abnormal nuclei as well as polyploidy are reported. In macrophages, AOH may increase autophagic activity and induce senescence. Furthermore, AOH is found to change the morphology and phenotype of various human macrophage cell models. Studies so far indicate that the AOH-induced effects are primarily a result of DSB via its effects on topoisomerase activity. Thus, most probably there will be a threshold for the AOH-induced effects, typically seen in the 5–10 μM range. These in vitro mechanistic studies further support the in vivo studies suggesting low acute toxicity. However, a decreased immune response to infections and/or a disturbed balance of the adaptive immune system when exposed together with other mycotoxins cannot be excluded. This hypothesis needs to be further explored with proper in vivo studies.