Formaldehyde Exposure and Associated Health Burdens Apportioned to Residential and Public Places Based on Personal and Environmental Measurements

Abstract

Formaldehyde poses a critical indoor environmental health hazard, particularly in rapidly urbanizing settings. Residential and public buildings serve as the most significant exposure sites; however, the extent of urban populations’ formaldehyde exposure in these two types of environments remains unclear, posing challenges for precise prevention and control strategies. This study employed a comprehensive exposure assessment by combining personal exposure monitoring with environmental sampling to characterize formaldehyde exposure profiles and contributions apportioned to residential and public microenvironments. The mean personal exposure concentration of formaldehyde of working adults was 36.0 μg/m3 (SD: 30.7 μg/m3). The mean chronic daily intake derived from personal data was 5.1 μg/kg/day. Residential environments were identified as the predominant contributors to overall exposure (>50% of total exposure in working adults, and >80% in children/elderly), followed by public places (contributing to 40% among employed adults). For children under 5 years and the elderly, residential settings accounted for >80% of the contribution of total intake. The home and school environments contributed to approximately 60% and 30% of exposure for children and adolescents aged 5–18 years, respectively. Other microenvironments (such as vehicular and outdoor settings) contributed to less than 10%. Simulation scenarios further suggested that reducing indoor formaldehyde concentrations by 15–30% in both residential and public buildings could avert 10–20% of associated health burdens for targeted populations. These findings underscore the continuous need for formaldehyde exposure control in both residential and public environments as well as indoor health interventions in modern urban areas.