Polyphenols from Grape Pomace: Functionalization of Chitosan-Coated Hydroxyapatite for Modulated Swelling and Release of Polyphenols

Abstract

Chitosan is known for its specific antibacterial mechanism and biodegradability, while polyphenols are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties: coupling these properties on a surface for bone contact, such as hydroxyapatite, is of great interest. The system developed here allows the combination of hydroxyapatite, chitosan, and polyphenol properties in the same multifunctional biomaterial in order to modulate the host response after implantation. Crosslinked chitosan is used in this research to create a stable coating on hydroxyapatite, and then it is functionalized for a smart release of the polyphenols. The release is higher in inflammatory conditions and lower in physiological conditions. The properties of the coated and functionalized samples are characterized on the as-prepared samples and after the samples are immersed (for 24 h) in solutions, which simulate the inflammatory and physiological conditions. Characterization is performed in order to confirm the presence of polyphenols grafted within the chitosan coating, the stability of grafting as a function of pH, the morphology of the coating and distribution of polyphenols on the surface, and the redox reactivity and radical scavenging activity of the functionalized coating. All the results are in line with previous results, which show a successful coating with chitosan and functionalization with polyphenols. Moreover, the polyphenols have a different release kinetics that is faster in a simulated inflammatory environment compared to that in the physiological environment. Even after the release tests, a fraction of polyphenols are still bound on the surface, maintaining the antioxidant and radical scavenging activity for a longer time. An electrostatic bond occurs between the negative-charged polar groups of polyphenols (carboxyls and/or phenols) and the positive amide groups of the chitosan coating, and the substitution of the crosslinker by the polyphenols occurs during the functionalization process.