A Proposed Reverse Logistics Network for End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Battery Management in the Jakarta Greater Area: A MILP Approach

Abstract

The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) in the Jakarta Greater Area is expected to significantly increase the volume of end-of-life (EoL) batteries, necessitating an efficient and sustainable waste management system. This study designs a reverse logistics network that includes Collection Centers (CCs), a combined Remanufacturing and Recycling Center (RMC), and a Waste Disposal Center (WDC). Dealer clusters are identified using K-means clustering to determine the optimal CC locations. A deterministic mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model is developed to minimize total costs. It comprises acquisition, transportation, processing, facility, and carbon tax components. The model yields a minimum total cost of IDR 1,236,435,000,187, with processing costs contributing the largest share (56.68%), followed by transportation (29.30%). The selected facilities include five CCs (CCA-1, CCE-2, CCK-3, CCM-4, and CCR-5), one RMC (RMC-1), and one WDC (WDC-1). Based on battery health, the batteries are classified into three categories: L1 (>80% health, suitable for remanufacturing), L2 (60–80%, suitable for recycling), and L3 (<60%, directed to disposal). L1 and L2 batteries are directed to RMC-1, while L3 batteries and solid waste are routed to WDC-1, totaling 1.029 tons. The results emphasize the need for improving processing efficiency and strategic facility placement to enhance the sustainability and cost-effectiveness of EoL battery management in urban EV ecosystems.