Seven barriers to the ethical governance of artificial intelligence in defence

Abstract

The ethical governance of AI in defence confronts a paradox: principles proliferate while implementation falters. This systematic review of 1085 publications exposes why frameworks flounder where ethical governance matters most. We identify seven barriers—governance and structural, conceptual, strategic, operational, relational and cultural, technical and data, and resource constraints—that operate as an interconnected system. Governance and structural barriers dominate the literature. This prominence may reflect their visibility rather than their primacy; technical, operational, and cultural dynamics remain harder to trace but are equally consequential. The challenges created by these seven barriers are severe but not insurmountable. We propose three strategic interventions: establishing authoritative, interoperable governance architectures that transcend organisational and national boundaries; building institutional capacity through dedicated resources and interdisciplinary expertise; and integrating ethical governance as core capability throughout the AI lifecycle rather than as compliance retrofit. This systemic analysis advances scholarship beyond principle enumeration and towards understanding the institutional, structural, and technical conditions under which ethical governance of AI in the defence domain can acquire operational traction in contested strategic environments.