Assessing the Impact of Deficit Irrigation and Kaolin Application on Almond Orchards: Statistical Relationships with Crop Yields and Spectral Vegetation Indices

Abstract

Given the current climate change scenario, it is essential to find strategies to reduce environmental risks and obtain economically sustainable agricultural productions. This study investigated the impact of various agronomic treatments on an almond orchard in northeastern Portugal, focusing on their relationships with crop growth/vigour and yield. The experiment was conducted using a factorial design that combined three variables: almond cultivar (Constantí and Vairo), irrigation regime (full and regulated deficit irrigation), and kaolin application (with or without application). These combinations resulted in eight distinct treatments, each replicated across two experimental plots. To monitor the crop physiological status, two drone flights equipped with a multispectral camera were flown during the kernel-filling stage (3 and 30 August 2021). Vegetation indices (VI) derived from the multispectral images were used to assess the crop vigour. In relation to the production data, including kernel and in-shell almond weights, these were collected in 14 representative trees of each treatment. Lastly, parametric and nonparametric regression analyses were performed to better understand relationships between VI and crop yields and derive predictive models. The main results can be summarised as follows: (a) cv. Vairo was more vulnerable to the regulated deficit irrigation strategy with striking repercussions on almond production, translating into an average reduction per tree of 22% and 16% in almond kernel and in-shell almonds compared to full irrigation, respectively; (b) kaolin application did not reflect statistically significant differences in the mean crop yield, as Tukey’s pairwise comparisons involving kaolin as a differentiating factor (e.g., C100+k—C100, V100+K—V100) showed confidence intervals with central value close to zero; and (c) regression analysis using the nonparametric random forest model and individualised treatments demonstrated a better agreement with the observed data (R2 > 0.7). This research provided valuable insights into how cultivar selection, irrigation strategy, and kaolin application can influence the almond crop performance. When integrating multispectral aerial monitoring and advanced statistical modelling, it enables an effective assessment of both crop vigour and expected yield, supporting the development of more informed and adaptive management practices to face emerging environmental challenges.