Snake Venom and Haemostasis – An Overview

Abstract

Venomous snakebites are still a public health problem in tropical countries. Even in metropolitan areas, such as Bangkok, green pit viper (Cryptelytrops albolabris and C. macrops) bites are still prevalent. As we are invading their territory, they adapt to live among humans in our backyards. With some exceptions, clinical syndromes of snakebites can be divided simply into two classes: elapid envenomation attacks neuromuscular junctions, causing muscular paralysis; viper envenomation targets the haemostatic system, resulting in bleeding disorders. Therefore, viper venoms are of great interest to haematologists. Vipers (Viperinae) are members of the snake family that develops the most advanced venom-injecting organs, the long sheathed fangs that can be folded like switchblades. Some vipers possess pit organs, infrared detectors for locating warm-blooded prey in the dark. This specialised subfamily is termed crotalidae (Pit viper), separating them from viperidae (True viper). Vipers found in the Americas are pit vipers, while African vipers are true vipers. Asia and Europe are homes to both subfamilies. Viper Bites Clinically, viper bites cause both local tissue damage and systemic effects: local tissue swelling, blisters from dermo-epidermal separation, ecchymoses and gangrene. Snake venom metalloprotease (SVMPs) have been implicated in these tissue injuries, both directly and indirectly via vascular damage 1 and inflammatory responses. 2 The most prominent systemic effects of pit viper venoms are towards fibrinogen and platelets. Although the venoms clot fibrinogen (thrombin-like effect) and activate platelets in vitro, these friable clots and platelet aggregates are rapidly cleared from circulation in vivo, resulting in hypofibrinogenaemia, termed defibrination syndrome, and thrombocytopenia. 3 On the other hand, true vipers, such as Russell's viper and Daboia russelii, activate common pathways of coagulation via factor X and V, causing bleeding from disseminated intravascular coagulation. Kinetics studies in humans showed that the viper venom is rapidly absorbed. However, the effects on blood may be delayed and prolonged as the half-life of viper venoms is over 24 hours. 4