Forensic Odontology in the Digital Era: A Narrative Review of Current Methods and Emerging Trends

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Forensic dental determination plays a central role in human identification, age estimation, and trauma analysis in medico-legal contexts. Traditional approaches—including clinical examination, odontometric analysis, and radiographic comparison—remain essential but are constrained by examiner subjectivity, population variability, and reduced applicability in fragmented or degraded remains. Recent advances in cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT), three-dimensional surface scanning, intraoral imaging, and artificial intelligence (AI) offer promising opportunities to enhance accuracy, reproducibility, and integration with multidisciplinary forensic evidence. The aim of this review is to synthesize conventional and emerging approaches in forensic odontology, critically evaluate their strengths and limitations, and highlight areas requiring validation. Methods: A structured literature search was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar for studies published between 2015 and 2025. Search terms combined forensic odontology, dental identification, CBCT, 3D scanning, intraoral imaging, and AI methodologies. From 108 records identified, 81 peer-reviewed articles met eligibility criteria and were included for analysis. Results: Digital methods such as CBCT, 3D scanning, and intraoral imaging demonstrated improved diagnostic consistency compared with conventional techniques. AI-driven tools—including automated age and sex estimation, bite mark analysis, and restorative pattern recognition—showed potential to enhance objectivity and efficiency, particularly in disaster victim identification. Persistent challenges include methodological heterogeneity, limited dataset diversity, ethical concerns, and issues of legal admissibility. Conclusions: Digital and AI-based approaches should complement, not replace, the expertise of forensic odontologists. Standardization, validation across diverse populations, ethical safeguards, and supportive legal frameworks are necessary to ensure global reliability and medico-legal applicability.