EVOLUTION OF EUROPEAN FORTIFICATION IN 1850 – 1914

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to do research on the issues of the European fortification evolution during the period of understanding and giving up the dominant ideas of the bastion and polygonal defense systems of fortresses to the completion of preparations for World War I in the second half of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries. The research methodology is based on the use a set of methods: dialectical, analytical, historical, biographical, comparative. This methodological approach allowed to analyze and reveal the factors that influenced the evolution retrospectively (exhaustion of bastion defense system and solid fortress fence, the emergence of high-explosive bombs and the implementation of shooting from closed positions), new ideas for defense and fundamental changes in fortifications, use of concrete and reinforced concrete, machine guns), location, types and features of long-term fortifications and discussions around the principles of defense, creation of new infrastructure with a network of railways, highway and railway bridges. The scientific novelty of the obtained results consists in a comprehensive analysis of periodization of the European fortification evolution during the period under analysis. The main differences and borrowings among different national schools of fortification science, interaction within military and political coalitions, the impact of financial opportunities on projects and changes in political conditions (especially on the example of the Austro-Russian relations), as well as military intelligence activities, in particular “Riddle’s case”. The Conclusion. Under the influence of turbulent changes in the scientific and technological revolution in 1850 – 1914, the evolution of the European long-term fortification took place. There was a complete rejection of the bastion and polygonal defense systems, a solid fortress fence. New ideas for defense and principles of fortification change survived a few short, but intense periods. In 1850 – 1870 it was necessary to replace the solid fortress fence with a belt of forts, located at the distance of 600–800 m from each other. In 1870 – 1880 interim batteries appeared, in 1880 – 1886 the offensive period was characterized by the location of forts at the distance of 5–8 km from the core of the fortress, which were higher the ground level, with the use of poterne for protection of soldiers and warehouse. In 1886 – 1899 the use of high-explosive bombs led to an intensive search of shelter, which culminated in the last stage, in 1899 – 1914, in the appearance of concrete and reinforced concrete fortifications, armored rotary towers, etc., which was also encouraged by the introduction of firing from closed artillery positions.